What role should religion play in public discourse? Not long ago Richard Rorty argued, in more than one place, that religion is a "conversation stopper" which polite people refer to only in private conversations. Religious believers complain, however, that this practice renders it impossible for them to participate in public discourse. They ask whether a democratic community is worthy of the name if it effectively forbids (by custom or legislation) a significant segment of its citizens from acknowledging and drawing upon (...) their own traditions to help justify their moral and political claims? This paper draws upon the work of Jeffrey Stout, Robert Brandom, and importantly a Confucian understanding of ritual to argue that Rorty goes too far in arguing that religious assumptions have no place in public discourse. (shrink)

In the contemporary debate on moral status, it is not uncommon to find philosophers who embrace the the Principle of Full Moral Status, according to which the degree to which an entity E possesses moral status is proportional to the degree to which E possesses morally relevant properties until a threshold degree of morally relevant properties possession is reached, whereupon the degree to which E possesses morally relevant properties may continue to increase, but the degree to which E possesses moral (...) status remains the same. One philosopher who has contributed significantly to the contemporary debate on moral status and embraces the Principle of Full Moral Status is Mary Anne Warren. Warren holds not only that it is possible for some entities to possess full moral status, but that some entities actually do, e.g., normal adult human beings. I argue that two of Warren’s primary arguments for the Principle of Full Moral Status—the Argument from Pragmatism and the Argument from Explanatory Power—are significantly flawed. (shrink)

Due to Gӧdel’s incompleteness results, the categoricity of a sufficiently rich mathematical theory and the semantic completeness of its underlying logic are two mutually exclusive ideals. For first- and second-order logics we obtain one of them with the cost of losing the other. In addition, in both these logics the rules of deduction for their quantifiers are non-categorical. In this paper I examine two recent arguments –Warren (2020), Murzi and Topey (2021)– for the idea that the natural deduction rules (...) for the first-order universal quantifier are categorical, i.e., they uniquely determine its semantic intended meaning. Both of them make use of McGee’s open-endedness requirement and the second one uses in addition Garson’s (2013) local models for defining the validity of these rules. I argue that the success of both these arguments is relative to their semantic or infinitary assumptions, which could be easily discharged if the introduction rule for the universal quantifier is taken to be an infinitary rule, i.e. non-compact. Consequently, I reconsider the use of the ω-rule and I show that the addition of the ω-rule to the standard formalizations of first-order logic is categorical. In addition, I argue that the open-endedness requirement does not make the first-order Peano Arithmetic categorical and I advance an argument for its categoricity based on the inferential conservativity requirement. (shrink)

REPRODUÇÃO ANIMAL: FECUNDAÇÃO E GESTAÇÃO -/- ANIMAL BREEDING: FERTILIZATION AND PREGNANCY -/- Emanuel Isaque Cordeiro da Silva Departamento de Zootecnia da UFRPE E-mail: [email protected] WhatsApp: (82)98143-8399 -/- REPRODUÇÃO ANIMAL: FECUNDAÇÃO E GESTAÇÃO -/- 1. INTRODUÇÃO Em geral, a reprodução dos animais domésticos constitui o eixo sobre o qual se ramificam as produções animais mais importantes (leite, carne e ovos). Conhecer os fenômenos fisiológicos que ocorrem durante as diferentes fases da função reprodutiva e os mecanismos que a regulam demonstrou ser primordial (...) para a posterior aplicação das técnicas reprodutivas destinadas a regulá-la de acordo com os nossos interesses. Dentro deste amplo tema, a fecundação e a gestação, temas que se desenvolvem nesse trabalho, representam uma etapa relativamente longa e delicada sobre a qual apenas podemos intervir diretamente. No entanto, podemos facilitar as condições ambientais ideais, implantando um manejo cuidadoso e uma alimentação equilibrada, de acordo com os nossos conhecimentos. 2. A FECUNDAÇÃO As células sexuais cumprem a finalidade para a qual foram criadas no instante em que ocorre a sua união. Este fato, que garante a sobrevivência da espécie, é denominado fecundação. Consiste, em primeira instância, numa aproximação de ambos os gametas num lugar concreto do aparelho reprodutor feminino, para, posteriormente, ocorrer a penetração do espermatozóide no interior do ovócito. Segue-se a fusão dos elementos nucleares e citoplasmáticos dos dois gametas, constituindo-se uma célula ovo ou zigoto com a dotação cromossômica própria da espécie. A parte central do oviduto, a ampola tubária, é o local ou zona de fecundação. Esta experimenta, ao longo do ciclo estral e sob a ação hormonal, modificações internas destinadas a garantir o êxito da importante missão deste lugar das vias genitais femininas. 2.1 Transporte gamético Após a ruptura do folículo de Graaf, o oócito é captado pelo infundíbulo e introduzido no aparelho genital feminino, iniciando-se assim o seu percurso pelo oviduto. Na maioria dos mamíferos a ovulação ocorre antes de completar a segunda meiose, reiniciando-se esta e produzindo-se a expulsão do segundo corpúsculo polar uma vez ocorrida a penetração espermática. O deslocamento do gameta feminino pelo oviduto é promovido pela ação conjunta da atividade muscular do órgão (contrações peristálticas), os movimentos ciliares das células que tapizam o interior do tubo e, em algumas espécies, soma-se a ação dos fluidos internos. Da mesma forma, a velocidade de deslocamento depende do equilíbrio hormonal estrogênio-progesterona, com a mesma diminuição da ação estrogênica. Geralmente, a passagem do infundíbulo ao ponto de fecundação é rápida. O tempo requerido é estimado por uma oscilação de 30 a 180 minutos. Assim como o gameta feminino, os espermatozoides, uma vez depositado o sêmen na vagina, cérvix ou útero da fêmea, devem deslocar-se até a ampola tubária para que a fecundação possa realizar-se. O deslocamento destas células é geralmente também muito rápido, encontrando-se espermatozoides na zona tubária a poucos minutos depois de efetuada a cobrição. A velocidade com que ocorre depende de diversos fatores, entre os quais se incluem, o volume de ejaculação, o lugar em que se deposita e a anatomia do trato genital feminino. A própria mobilidade do gameta, a atividade contrátil da musculatura do órgão (motivada pela liberação de oxitocina durante a cobrição) e a atividade das células ciliadas do oviduto são os máximos responsáveis pela franquia da distância que separa o lugar de ejaculação e a ampola tubária. O transporte espermático constitui, em última análise, um modelo de seleção progressiva de células entre o ponto de deposição e o ponto de fecundação, no qual se vão auto-eliminando os espermatozoides menos viáveis. Na realidade os gametas se selecionam a si mesmos segundo sua capacidade, em especial ao atravessar a zona de barreira ou passagem do aparelho genital feminino. Por isso, apenas um número relativamente reduzido de células consegue atingir a zona de fertilização. Segundo Derivaux (1984), este número não excederá de 1.000 na rata, 5.000 na coelha e de 6.000 na ovelha, dos vários milhões que se derramam em cada ejaculação. Em suma, as células mais dotadas serão as que competem, uma vez atravessada a união útero-tubária, pela fertilidade do óvulo. 2.2 Duração da capacidade fertilizante dos gametas As células sexuais têm, após a sua liberação no aparelho reprodutor feminino, uma vida útil relativamente curta (tabela 1). Espécie Duração da fertilidade (horas) Ovócito Espermatozoide Duração da motilidade espermática (horas) Coelhos 6 – 8 30 – 36 43 - 50 Bovinos 8 – 12 28 – 50 15 - 56 Ovinos 16 – 24 30 – 48 48 Ratos 8 – 12 14 17 Equinos 6 – 8 144 144 Suínos 8 – 10 24 – 48 56 Homem 6 – 24 24 – 48 60 - 96 Tabela 1. Duração da fertilização e da motilidade espermática em ambos os gametas. Adaptado e elaborado a partir de COLE, 1977. Além disso, sabe-se que o envelhecimento dos gametas é incompatível com o desenvolvimento embrionário. Tais circunstâncias, condicionam o momento da cobrição ou da inseminação artificial, o qual deve estar praticamente sincronizado com o da ovulação da fêmea. Isto permitirá a ligação das células num momento propício, garantindo que as células espermáticas cheguem a zona de fecundação, enquanto o ovócito é expelido do folículo. Nas espécies em que a formação espermática é muito longa, o espermatozoide deve encontrar-se no trato genital feminino várias horas antes da ovulação. A viabilidade dos espermatozoides é determinada por dois aspectos: motilidade e fertilidade. Seu envelhecimento traduz-se em uma diminuição de ambas qualidades, sendo a fertilidade a primeira a diminuir depois da ejaculação. O envelhecimento do ovócito implica na diminuição da sua capacidade fecundante e origina um aumento do número de embriões anormais, aparentemente devido a uma falha no bloqueio contra a polispermia. Na maioria dos mamíferos o ovócito deve ser fertilizado nas horas imediatas a sua liberação e poucos deles podem ser fertilizados uma vez decorridas 12 horas desde a ovulação. 2.3 Capacitação e penetração espermática Os espermatozoides culminam o seu processo de maturação e se convertem em células aptas para a fertilização ao experimentarem, no interior do aparelho genital feminino, uma mudança fisiológica que lhes confere maior mobilidade e a faculdade de emitir enzimas proteolíticas pela região acrossômica da cabeça. Esta mudança física é chamada de capacitação espermática. A capacitação é considerada o resultado de dois mecanismos: a inativação de agentes antifertilidade ou fatores de descapacitação do plasma seminal que se encontram unidos à cabeça espermática e a produção de enzimas acrossômicas (reação acrossômica). A reação acrossômica origina uma mudança estrutural na parte anterior da cabeça espermática que permite a liberação de uma série de enzimas, fato que facilitará a penetração das coberturas do ovócito. Estas alterações incluem fusões diversas e progressivas entre a membrana acrossômica externa e a membrana plasmática celular, ficando a parte anterior da cabeça espermática limitada por uma série de vesículas, entre as quais fluem enzimas, principalmente hialuronidase e a acrosina. A primeira parece ter a missão de dissolver o ácido hialurônico, que mantém unido o cumulus oophorus, ao passo do espermatozoide. Durante a passagem pela zona pelúcida há a intervenção da acrosina. A capacitação e reação acrossômica são modificações prévias e indispensáveis para a penetração espermática ou parte mecânica do processo de fertilização, a qual termina com a passagem da membrana vitelina depois de ter salvado as barreiras que supõem as células do cumulus, a coroa radiada e a zona pelúcida. Em certas espécies (mulher, rata e cobaia), a penetração do espermatozoide é completa. Noutras (vaca, ovelha, coelha e cadela) é limitada exclusivamente à cabeça, permanecendo a cauda (flagelo) no exterior. A penetração do ovócito pelo espermatozoide dá lugar a uma série de fenômenos conducentes a um desenvolvimento normal do ovo fertilizado: o bloqueio da polispermia e a finalização da segunda meiose. Consumada a penetração, a reação da zona pelúcida e da membrana vitelina impedem a penetração de outro espermatozoide, evitando assim a polispermia, a qual originaria indivíduos poliploides não viáveis, sendo uma dotação cromossômica 3n ou mais uma alteração letal. Este mecanismo de reação, junto ao reduzido número de gametas masculinos que alcançam o oviduto, são aspectos que minimizam as possibilidades de fertilização polispérmica. O mecanismo de bloqueio da polispermia em mamíferos ainda não é conhecido com precisão. No entanto, sabe-se que as estruturas citoplasmáticas ovocíticas denominadas grânulos corticais desempenham um papel importante e que, ao descarregar o seu conteúdo, alteram a penetrabilidade da zona pelúcida e, por vezes, da membrana vitelina. O bloqueio, uma vez iniciado, propaga-se pela superfície ovular, estendendo-se a partir do ponto de origem, ou seja, do lugar onde o espermatozoide conecta-se com a superfície vitelina. Na maioria dos mamíferos domésticos (exceto cadela e égua) o ovócito é mantido na metafase da segunda divisão meiótica até que ocorre a penetração espermática, instante em que se estimula a sua reinicialização, completando-se a meiose com a expulsão do segundo corpúsculo polar. A partir daqui começam a desenvolver-se os pronúcleos masculino e feminino, os quais se convertem em duas massas cromossômicas que se repartem ao redor da placa equatorial na prófase da primeira mitose e que permitirá restabelecer o número cromossômico da espécie. A mistura de substâncias nucleares parentéricas é denominada anfimixis. As primeiras segmentações do zigoto ocorrem a nível do oviduto, pois, depois da fertilização os embriões permanecem durante algumas horas acima da junção ampola-istmo. Esta zona é abandonada para assim alcançar o meio uterino, onde transcorrerá o período de gravidez ou gestação. 3. A GESTAÇÃO A gestação compreende o espaço de tempo que vai desde o momento da fecundação até o parto. Podemos, a priori, diferenciar três fases do ponto de vista do desenvolvimento: fase de ovo, fase embrionária e fase fetal. A fase embrionária compreende a organogênese e a fase fetal o crescimento posterior dos órgãos, sendo a delimitação entre ambas muito difícil, uma vez que não existe nenhum fato ou circunstância determinante que as separe claramente, pelo que na prática se encontram sobrepostas. 3.1 Fase do ovo Esta fase, de curta duração, vai desde a fertilização do óvulo até à eclosão do blastocisto. O transporte do ovo para a zona uterina ocorre 2 dias depois na porca e entre o terceiro e o quarto dia em ruminantes, regulado por contrações da musculatura lisa da parede do oviduto sob a influência das hormonas esteroides ováricas. Seu estado de segmentação quando penetra no útero varia com as espécies: de 8 a 16 blastômeros na égua e na vaca, 16 na ovelha e 4 na porca. Durante estes primeiros momentos do desenvolvimento em que o ovo se desloca pelo oviduto (figura 1) sua nutrição é garantida pelas reservas citoplasmáticas do óvulo e pelo fluxo tubárico, especialmente abundante imediatamente após a ovulação. Entretanto, e sob a influência da progesterona proveniente do corpo lúteo em fase de crescimento, o útero experimenta mudanças destinadas a receber o embrião em fase de crescimento. Em primeiro lugar ocorre a proliferação de leucócitos polimorfonucleares que fagocitam os restos seminais e germes introduzidos durante a cobrição procurando esterilizar e adequar o ambiente. Em segundo lugar, verifica-se a proliferação do epitélio glandular uterino ou endométrio, produtor do fluido uterino ou histótrofo, que garantirá a nutrição do embrião até a posterior implantação do mesmo e, com isso, sua viabilidade. Figura 1. Esquema do deslocamento e do desenvolvimento do zigoto pelo interior do oviduto. Elaborado a partir de COLE, 1977 e HUNTER, 1987. Os embriões continuam o seu desenvolvimento através da mitose. A partir de 16 células os blastômeros são chamados de mórulas. Estes blastômeros segregam um fluido metabólico que se acumula no centro do blastocisto. Nesta fase, as células internas aumentam de tamanho e se diferenciam, sendo as destinadas a formar o botão embrionário a partir do qual terá lugar a organogênese embrionária; e as periféricas, mais pequenas e abundantes, que darão lugar ao trofoblasto ou membranas embrionárias. O conjunto encontra-se rodeado de uma membrana (zona pelúcida) que posteriormente se dilui ou se dissolve permitindo a eclosão, por pressão interna do fluido acumulado, do blastocisto. 3.2 Fases embrionária e fetal A eclosão do blastocisto põe, em contato direto, o aglomerado de células embrionárias com a mucosa uterina e permite, ao eliminar-se a retenção da zona pelúcida, o alongamento, mediante proliferação e reordenação das camadas celulares, dos embriões, afim de aumentar a superfície de contato com o endométrio, facilitando assim a nutrição das células. Neste momento, nas espécies multíparas, tem lugar o deslocamento e redistribuição dos embriões pelos córneos uterinos, assegurando-se espaço suficiente para cada um antes da implantação dos mesmos. Em geral, a implantação é considerada efetiva quando a posição do embrião no útero é fixa (tabela 2), estabelecendo-se contato definitivo com o mesmo; para isso, as camadas externas do blastocisto liberado diferenciam-se dando lugar às membranas fetais que constituirão a parte embrionária da placenta. Espécie Porca Ovelha Vaca Égua Dias 12 – 24 12 – 18 33 – 35 55 – 65 Tabela 2. Momento da implantação embrionária em diferentes espécies. Fonte: COLE, 1977 e HUNTER, 1980. A placenta é a estrutura que permite um contato vascular eficaz entre as membranas fetais e a superfície do endométrio materno, através do qual ocorre a troca de oxigênio e de princípios nutritivos fornecidos pelo sangue materno e CO2, além de produtos de excreção provenientes do sangue fetal. Para além desta função metabólica, a placenta protege e isola o feto, tendo também uma importante missão endócrina para a manutenção da gestação. Do ponto de vista anatômico, a placenta fetal está diferenciada em quatro membranas: âmnio, saco vitelínico, alantoide e córion. a) Âmnio - É o invólucro mais interno que envolve totalmente o feto. Em seu interior, vai-se gradualmente acumulando o líquido amniótico, que é o meio pelo qual flutuam o embrião e o feto durante sua vida intrauterina. Este líquido tem a missão mecânica de proteger o embrião, bem como de distender o útero e favorecer seu crescimento. Nos estágios mais avançados da gestação, permite ao feto efetuar as evoluções necessárias para adotar posturas eutocicas para o parto. No entanto, o papel fundamental é de natureza nutritiva, uma vez que o feto absorve e deglute grandes quantidades de líquido amniótico. O líquido amniótico é inicialmente incolor e de natureza mucosa, variando seu aspecto conforme avança a gestação já que vai acumulando substâncias de reserva e restos metabólicos excretados pelo feto. O seu conteúdo é rico em sais minerais, seroalbuminas, gorduras, frutose e aminoácidos essenciais. b) Saco de vitelino - É uma estrutura primitiva que desenvolve-se no início do período embrionário a partir do endoderma, desaparecendo rapidamente e ficando apenas um resíduo dentro das membranas fetais. A sua missão é nutritiva nos primeiros estágios da gestação, agindo de certa forma, como uma placenta rudimentar, uma vez que absorve e acumula o histotrofo e os resíduos metabólicos do jovem embrião. Sua importância diminui à medida que avança a gestação e instaura-se a definitiva placenta. c) Alantoide - Esta fina membrana aparece como um divertículo da parte posterior do intestino. Em sua parte externa vai desenvolver uma abundante rede vascular ligada à aorta fetal pelas artérias umbilicais e à veia cava posterior e fígado pelas veias umbilicais. O alantoide se funde com o trofoblasto, constituindo o alantocorion, que, como veremos, estará intimamente ligado ao endométrio. Sua camada interna, muito pouco vascularizada, se apoia contra o âmnios. Na vaca, porca e ovelha o alantoides e o âmnios estão unidos em vários pontos; na égua o âmnios flutua livremente. Entre as camadas internas e externas do alantoide se encontra a cavidade alantoide, que basicamente armazena os produtos de resíduos dos rins fetais, sendo importante a concentração de resíduos do metabolismo nitrogenado: ureia, ácido úrico, alantoína etc. c) Córion - É o invólucro mais externo derivado do trofoblasto, sendo um saco fechado que abriga o resto das membranas fetais e o feto. Nas espécies multíparas, no final da gestação, há um único corion comum que envolve todos os fetos e suas membranas fetais. A face externa do corion, à medida que a gestação avança, vai desenvolvendo vilosidades bastante vascularizadas (vilosidades coriais) que são as que vão estabelecer a relação entre a placenta fetal e o endométrio, possibilitando, em toda sua extensão, os intercâmbios materno-fetais (figura 2). Figura 2. 1 – Córion; 2 – Saco vitelínico; 3 e 4 – Alantoides; 5 – Âmnio e 6 – Corpo fetal. Fonte: RUTTER e RUSSO, 2002. Dependendo da ligação placentária entre a mãe e o feto, diferente para cada espécie, podem ser estabelecidas diferentes classificações de placentas. Limito a comentar dois tipos, alicerçado pelo ponto de vista anatômico e do ponto de vista histológico. Anatomicamente - levando em conta a distribuição das conexões útero-coriais podemos falar de: a) Placenta difusa: Conexão em toda a extensão de contato uterocorial (égua e porca). b) Placentas localizadas: 1. Cotiledônea - Trata-se de botões coriais distribuídos mais ou menos uniformemente pela superfície de contato (ruminantes). 2. Zonal - A ligação ocorre apenas numa zona específica central, como um anel (cães e gatos). 3. Discoide - A conexão ocorre em uma zona ou zonas de forma oval; é típica de roedores. Histologicamente - baseado no número e tipo de camadas histológicas que separam a circulação materna e fetal (classificação de Grosser), o que determinará, em parte, a permeabilidade placentária. Deste modo, o feto receberá mais ou menos, e diretamente, os elementos nutritivos, imunitários ou tóxicos que circulam no sangue materno. Há quatro tipos diferentes: a) Epiteliocorial - Aqui, encontramos seis camadas tecidulares entre as duas circulações: tecidos endotelial, conectivo e epitelial corial, por parte fetal, e tecidos epitelial e conectivo uterino e a membrana capilar materna. Este tipo de placenta encontra-se na égua e na porca. b) sindesmocorial - O tecido epitelial corial está ligado diretamente à conjuntiva uterina. Tradicionalmente, têm-se considerado esta placenta como sendo típica de ruminantes; todavia, atualmente, esta classificação aparece como demasiado simplista à luz dos progressos das investigações ultraestruturais; verificou-se que o epitélio materno persiste em bovinos e caprinos, pelo qual estas duas espécies devem ser consideradas epiteliocoriais. c) Endoteliocorial - O tecido epitelial corial está em contato direto com as membranas capilares maternas. Esta placenta é típica de carnívoros. d) Hemocorial - O sangue materno banha diretamente ao epitélio corial, estando suprimidas todas as camadas tecidulares maternas. 3.3 Nutrição fetal A nutrição inicial é garantida pelo histotrofo ou leite uterino e, posteriormente, pelo hemotrofo ou substâncias nutritivas que o alantocorion absorve pelos pontos de contato do sangue materno. Dentro dela podemos distinguir: a) Troca gasosa - A passagem do oxigênio, por difusão, da mãe para o feto, ocorre devido à grande afinidade que existe com a hemoglobina fetal e à grande capacidade de dissociação da oxihemoglobina materna que o libera. Também acontece que os capilares maternos e fetais situam-se paralelamente com fluxos contracorrentes que originam importantes diferenças de pressão de oxigênio, o que facilita a difusão do gás. A troca de CO2 funciona por mecanismos semelhantes, mas vice-versa. b) Aporte de princípios imediatos - Os glicídios são trocados por osmose favorecida pelas menores concentrações que se desenrolam no sangue fetal em relação à materna. É interessante destacar que no sangue fetal aparecem glicose e frutose e no sangue materno apenas glicose. A síntese de frutose ocorre na placenta e não flui do feto para a mãe. No que diz respeito aos lipídios, a placenta é apenas um local de passagem. Quanto aos prótidos, além da difusão de aminoácidos e proteínas da mãe para o feto, a placenta também é capaz de sintetizar seus próprios aminoácidos, bem como desdobrar proteínas maternas e resintetizar outras para suas próprias necessidades. Em relação às proteínas de elevado peso molecular, só são permeáveis as placentas de tipo endoteliocorial e hemocorial, uma vez que as imunoglobulinas maternas (anticorpos) não podem ultrapassar esta barreira nas espécies que apresentam placenta sindesmocorial e epiteliocorial (nestas espécies (bovinos à exemplo) a imunidade será transferida por via colostral durante as primeiras horas de vida do neonato). 3.4 Mecanismos hormonais de regulação da gestação Na presença do ovo fecundado, no ovário desenrolam-se uma série de transformações. O corpo lúteo, que geralmente involuciona pelo efeito luteolítico da prostaglandina F2a, no caso da gestação permanece e se mantém produzindo progesterona. Parece que o estímulo antiluteolítico ocorre após a eclosão do blastocisto. A presença do ovário é fundamental em todas as espécies para a manutenção da gestação, sobretudo em seus primeiros momentos, tanto pela produção de progesterona como de estrogênio. Neste sentido, difere bastante uma espécie de outra, assim em ovelhas são citados 55 dias como tempo mínimo em que a produção de progesterona ovariana é indispensável, na égua 150 dias: no entanto, em vacas, cabras e porcas, uma ovariectomia realizada em qualquer momento da gestação provoca a sua interrupção. Ou seja, nas primeiras espécies, a partir de certos momentos, a placenta pode assumir o equilíbrio endócrino da gestação; nas segundas parece haver uma sinergia desta com o ovário, mas sem chegar a substituí-lo. a) Papel dos estrogênios - Embora os níveis de estrogênios, após a fecundação, baixem consideravelmente no sangue, a secreção ovárica continua, e é sobre os órgãos mais ativados pelos estrogênios que se manifestam mais as concentrações crescentes de progesterona, aumentando a permeabilidade capilar do útero, a multiplicação das suas células epiteliais, a acumulação de glicogênio nas suas células musculares, a hipertrofia das mesmas, etc. À medida em que a gestação progride, os níveis plasmáticos de estrogênios aumentam devido, sobretudo, à produção placentária. b) Papel da progesterona - A progesterona atua sobre o útero em diferentes níveis: — A nível da mucosa facilita as mudanças da mesma, preparados pelos estrogênios, aumentando também o desenvolvimento glandular. — Ao nível da musculatura uterina inibe, durante toda a gestação, as contrações do miométrio. — Ao nível do lobo anterior da hipófise bloqueia a produção de FSH e LH, parando as ondas cíclicas de maturação folicular. 3.5 Duração da gestação A duração da gestação é diferente segundo as espécies e dentro destas, com porcentagens menores de variação de acordo com a raça, o indivíduo, o estado sanitário, o sexo do feto, o número de fetos, a estação, etc. (tabela 3). Espécie Porca Ovelha/Cabra Vaca Égua Coelha Dias 114 (102-128) 154 (140-159) 283 (273-295) 340 (329-345) 31 (30-32) Tabela 3. Duração média e intervalo da gestação em diferentes espécies. Fonte: COLE, 1977. -/- 3.6 Diagnóstico da gestação O diagnóstico de gestação precoce é de grande importância nas espécies de interesse zootécnico, já que nelas procura-se, em geral, intensificar ao máximo o ciclo produtivo, limitando, na medida do possível, os períodos de incerteza. Nas espécies de ciclo curto e produção de carne, como a porca e a coelha, a intensificação é ainda maior e, portanto, o interesse do diagnóstico precoce de gestação aumenta. Os métodos de diagnóstico de gestação mais frequentes são: a) palpação - Para ser viável, é necessária a qualificação prática da pessoa que a realiza. Distinguem-se basicamente dois tipos: 1. Retal - Muito usada nos grandes animais como bovinos e equinos, permitem-nos diagnosticar, com uma porcentagem de cerca de 90% de acerto, a gestação da égua entre 45 e 60 dias após a cobrição e cerca de 45 dias na vaca. 2. Abdominal - Esta é praticada com sucesso quase exclusivamente em coelhas, podendo ser feito o diagnóstico entre os dias 11 e 14 de gestação. b) Ultrassons - Utilizados em ovelhas e porcas com bons resultados, embora, teoricamente, poderia ser utilizado em mais espécies. Em ovelhas permite-nos diagnosticar entre os 60 e 70 dias e na porca cerca dos 40 dias. c) hormonais - Utilizados principalmente em éguas. Baseado na presença de PMSG no sangue durante a gestação e a ação folículo estimulante e luteinizante da mesma ao ser injetado plasma de égua prenha em outra espécie animal de laboratório. 4 RESUMO E PRIMEIRAS CONCLUSÕES A fecundação pressupõe a fusão do gameta masculino e feminino numa zona específica do aparelho reprodutor da fêmea: a ampola tubária. Tal acontecimento é possível quando o óvulo e o esperma conseguem alcançar essa zona, se sua capacidade fecundante é ótima no momento do encontro, se produz a capacitação espermática e se, finalmente, o espermatozoide consegue penetrar o interior do óvulo. A fusão gamética representa o início da fase mais delicada na vida de uma reprodutora: a gestação. Regida hormonalmente pela progesterona, o período gestante compreende uma fase embrionária em que ocorre a organogênese e uma etapa fetal de desenvolvimento e crescimento do mesmo. A gestação, de duração variável segundo a espécie, termina com o parto ou expulsão da cria ou crias para fora do corpo materno. Emanuel Isaque Cordeiro da Silva – Departamento de Zootecnia da UFRPE. Recife, 2020. REFERÊNCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS -/- BRACKELL, B. G.; JR SEIDEL, G. E.; SEIDEL, S. Avances en zootecnia nuevas técnicas de reproducción animal. Zaragoza: Acribia, 1988. COLE, H. H.; CUPPS, P. T. Reproduction in domestic animals. 1ª ed. Londres: Academic Press, 1977. CUNNINGHAM, James G. Fisiología veterinaria. São Paulo: Elsevier, 2003. DERIVAUX, Jules; ECTORS, F. Fisiopatología de la gestación y obstetricia veterinaria. Zaragoza: Acribia, 1984. DERIVAUX, Jules; BARNABÉ, Renato Campanarut. Reprodução dos animais domésticos. Zaragoza: Acribia, 1980. DA SILVA, Emanuel Isaque Cordeiro. Definição de Conceitos Básicos na Reprodução Animal: Fertilidade, Fecundidade e Prolificidade-Suínos. Philarchive. Disponível em: ----. Acesso em: Fevereiro de 2020. DA SILVA, Emanuel Isaque Cordeiro. Características Gerais dos Bovinos/General Characteristics of Cattle Bovine. Philarchive. Disponível em: ----. Acesso em: Fevereiro de 2020. DA SILVA, Emanuel Isaque Cordeiro. Fisiologia da Reprodução Animal: Ovulação, Controle e Sincronização do Cio. Disponível em: ----. Acesso em: Fevereiro de 2020. FERNÁNDEZ ABELLA, Daniel Héctor. Principios de fisiología reproductiva ovina. Montevidéu: Hemisferio Sur1993. GONZÁLEZ, Félix HD. Introdução a endocrinologia reprodutiva veterinária. Porto Alegre: UFRGS, v. 83, 2002. GRUNERT, E.; BOVE, S.; STOPIGLIA, A. Fisiología de la gestación. Guía de Obstetricia Veterinari - fisiología de la gestación. Buenos Aires: Editorial Universitaria de Buenos Aires, p. 1-12, 1971. HAFEZ, E. S. E.; HAFEZ, B. Reprodução animal. São Paulo: Manole, 2004. HUNTER, R. H. F. Reproducción de los animales de granja. Zaragoza: Acribia, 1987. HUNTER, Ronald Henry Fraser et al. Physiology and technology of reproduction in female domestic animals. Londres: Academic Press, 1980. ILLERA, M. Endocrinología Veterinaria y Fisiología de la Reproducción. Zaragoza: Fareso, 1994. JAINUDEEN, M. R.; HAFEZ, E. S. E. Gestação, fisiologia pré-natal e parto. Revista Brasileira de Reprodução animal, v. 7, p. 141-142, 2004. PÉREZ PÉREZ, F.; PÉREZ GUTIÉRREZ, F. Reproducción animal, inseminación animal y transplante de embriones. Barcelona: Cientifico-medica, 1985. ROBERTS, Stephen J. Obstetricia veterinaria y patología de la reproducción. Montevidéu: Hemiferio Sur, 1979. SALISBURY, G. W.; VANDERMARK, N. L. Phisiology of the reproduction and artificial insemination of cattle. San Francisco : Freeman e Company, 1961, 630 p. SHILLE, V. M. Fisiologia reprodutiva e endocrinologia da fêmea e do macho. Tratado de medicina interna veterinária. São Paulo: Manole, p. 1857-68, 1992. RUTTER, Bruno; RUSSO, Angel F. Fundamentos de la fisiología de la gestación y el parto de los animales domésticos. Buenos Aires: Eudeba, 2002. UNGERFELD, Rodolfo. Reproducción en los animales domésticos. Montevidéu: Melibea, 2002. (shrink)

This paper focuses on two questions: (I) why do the Cyrenaics deny that we can gain knowledge concerning "external things," and (II) how wide-ranging is this denial? On the first question, I argue that the Cyrenaics are skeptical because of their contrast between the indubitable grasp we have of own affections, versus the inaccessibility of external things that cause these affections. Furthermore, this inaccessibility is due to our cognitive and perceptual limitations--it is an epistemological doctrine rooted in their psychology--and not (...) (pace Zilioli) due to any metaphysical theses regarding the external world. On the second question, I argue (pace Tsouna and Warren) that the scope of the Cyrenaics' skepticism is quite wide. Our reports on the Cyrenaics are inconsistent, but the most charitable and plausible reading results in attributing to the Cyrenaics skepticism not merely about the properties of external things (e.g., that the fire that warms me is really hot) of also of their nature and identity (e.g., that the object that warms me is a fire). However, it does not extend to skepticism regarding the existence of an external world. (shrink)

This article contributes to the debate on the relationship between marketing and propaganda through an analysis of social marketing as a mode of governing in permanent campaigning. The working hypothesis is that social marketing operations are agitational rather than propagandistic. The conceptual approach stems from a comparison of propaganda and marketing with Fordist and post-Fordist modes of production and governance. The research into the role of agitation involves an empirical study of the UK government campaign against benefit fraud, the most (...) expensive of its kind. Using a combination of methodologies, the political context is framed through a discourse analysis that charts the historical emergence of the problem of benefit fraud and the material effects of this discourse on welfare spending allocation, content analysis is used to identify correspondences between different newspapers’ rhetoric and policy under different governments, and semiotic analysis helps to decode the message of the campaign against benefit fraud, as it relates to the overall government’s strategy on this issue. The study offers insights into the political strategy of the government of New Labour between 1997 and 2010 and its resort to agitational techniques, exposing the limitations of government marketing and public relations in the context of an overall crisis of its political legitimacy, in both economic and political terms. (shrink)

The paper presents the findings of ethnographic research and a survey of a Local Exchange Trading Scheme in North-East London and asks the question of whether the scheme delivers on the aims and objectives of its members. The research found that whilst its members express a strong politically motivated desire for an alternative to the prevailing economic system, the LETS scheme falls short of delivering on those ambitions. The findings raise the question of whether there is anything intrinsic to this (...) form of local community currency that leads it to be more inclusive, egalitarian and fair. (shrink)

The condition of precariousness not only provides insights into a segment of the world of work or of a particular subject group, but is also a privileged standpoint for an overview of the condition of the social on a global scale. Because precariousness is multidimensional and polysemantic, it traverses contemporary society and multiple contexts, from industrial to class, gender, family relations as well as political participation, citizenship and migration. This book maps the differences and similarities in the ways precariousness and (...) insecurity in employment unfold and are subjectively experienced in regions and sectors that are confronted with different labour histories, legislations and economic priorities. Establishing a constructive dialogue amongst different global regions and across disciplines, the chapters explore the shift from precariousness to precariat and collective subjects as it is being articulated in the current global crisis. This edited collection aims to continue a process of mapping experiences by means of ethnographies, fieldwork, interviews, content analysis, where the precarious define their condition and explain how they try to withdraw from, cope with or embrace it. (shrink)

Quietist Moral Realists accept that there are moral facts and properties, while aiming to avoid many of the explanatory burdens thought to fall on traditional moral realists. This chapter examines the forms that Quietist Moral Realism has taken and the challenges it has faced, in order to better assess its prospects. The best hope, this chapter argues, lies in a pragmatist approach that distinguishes the different functions of diverse areas of discourse. This paves the way for a form of Quietism (...) that does not simply remain quiet about the explanatory demands of metaethics, but rather is able to diagnose where they go wrong. By combining a neopragmatic analysis of the discourse with an easy approach to ontology, , we can develop a form of Quietist Moral Realism that is far stronger than critics of quietism have appreciated. (shrink)

Plato claimed that morality exits to control conflict. Business people increasingly are called upon to resolve moral conflicts between various stakeholders who maintain opposing ethical positions or principles. Attempts to resolve these moral conflicts within business discussions may be exacerbated if disputants have different communicative styles. To better understand the communication process involved in attempts to resolve a moral dilemma, we investigate the "discourse ethics" procedure of Jürgen Habermas. Habermas claims that an individual's level of moral reasoning parallels the type (...) of communication which that individual typically uses in attempts to resolve conflict. Our research focuses upon the relationship between the communicative style used by participants attempting to resolve a particular moral dilemma involving workplace safety and the level of moral reasoning possessed by those participants. The results of our study suggest that, contrary to Habermas' views, participants with "higher" levels of moral reasoning do not use "discursive" communicative tactics more frequently than participants that possessed "lower" moral reasoning. (shrink)

Once upon a time, logical conventionalism was the most popular philosophical theory of logic. It was heavily favored by empiricists, logical positivists, and naturalists. According to logical conventionalism, linguistic conventions explain logical truth, validity, and modality. And conventions themselves are merely syntactic rules of language use, including inference rules. Logical conventionalism promised to eliminate mystery from the philosophy of logic by showing that both the metaphysics and epistemology of logic fit into a scientific picture of reality. For naturalists of all (...) stripes, this was paradise. Alas, paradise was lost. By the end of the twentieth century, logical conventionalism had been almost universally abandoned. But more recently, it has been revitalized. This chapter provides an overview of logical conventionalism and its history, clears away misunderstandings, and briefly responds to both the canonical objections to conventionalism (from Quine, Dummett, Boghossian, and many others) as well as new objections (from Field and Golan). From paradise lost, to paradise regained: logical conventionalism is back. (shrink)

In his arguments that science itself can answer moral questions, Sam Harris often appeals to our intuitions about the badness of suffering. If we share these intuitions, Harris argues, we’ve taken a significant step in conceding to a basically utilitarian worldview. In this chapter, I critically assess Harris’ arguments and find them deeply wanting.

Despite its many advantages as a metaethical theory, moral expressivism faces difficulties as a semantic theory of the meaning of moral claims, an issue underscored by the notorious Frege-Geach problem. I consider a distinct metaethical view, inferentialism, which like expressivism rejects a representational account of meaning, but unlike expressivism explains meaning in terms of inferential role instead of expressive function. Drawing on Michael Williams’ recent work on inferential theories of meaning, I argue that an appropriate understanding of the pragmatic role (...) of moral discourse—the facilitation of coordinated social behavior—suggests the kind of inferences we should expect terms with this function to license. I offer a sketch of the inferential roles the moral ‘ought’ plays, and argue that if we accept that the relevant inferential roles are meaning-constitutive, we will be in a position to solve the Frege-Geach problem. Such an inferentialist solution has advantages over those forwarded by expressivists such as Blackburn and Gibbard. First, it offers a more straightforward explanation of the meaning of moral terms. It also gives simple answers to at least two semantic worries that have vexed contemporary expressivists—the “problem of permissions” and the commitment to “mentalism”, both of which I argue are problems that don’t get traction with an inferentialist approach. I conclude by considering ways in which this approach can be expanded into a more robust semantic account. (shrink)

This is a review of the latest in the Empire/Multitude series by Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri: Assembly. Published in 2018.

A review of Enda Brophy's study of call centre work in global capitalism. Language put to work. Published in 2018.

We face reality presented with the data of conscious experience and nothing else. The project of early modern philosophy was to build a complete theory of the world from this starting point, with no cheating. Crucial to this starting point is the data of conscious sensory experience – sense data. Attempts to avoid this project often argue that the very idea of sense data is confused. But the sense-data way of talking, the sense-data language, can be freed from every blemish (...) using ideas from contemporary metaontology. We can adopt a sense-data framework that vindicates the traditional claims of sense-data theories and leads to plausible theories of perception and color. We can, we should, and in a sense, we must. Yet when we do, we face the traditional problem of external world skepticism, head-on. The real challenge of skepticism is forced upon us; it cannot honestly be avoided using externalist tricks, burden of proof shifting, or other razzle dazzle. But the challenge can be met: we are rational to posit the external world as the best explanation of the many synchronic and diachronic patterns over our sense-data. This paper argues for all of these points and ends with a plea for analytic empiricism – a traditional sense-data version of empiricism that uses all of the tools of analytic philosophy while avoiding the more questionable doctrines of the Vienna Circle (phenomenalism, verificationism). Analytic empiricism is our last best hope for completing the great philosophical project of early modern philosophy. (shrink)

Explaining genuine moral disagreement is a challenge for metaethical theories. For expressivists, this challenge comes from the plausibility of agents making seemingly univocal claims while expressing incongruent conative attitudes. I argue that metaethical inferentialism – a deflationary cousin to expressivism, which locates meaning in the inferential import of our moral assertions rather than the attitudes they express – offers a unique solution to this problem. Because inferentialism doesn’t locate the source of moral disagreements in a clash between attitudes, but instead (...) in conflicts between the inferential import of ethical assertions, the traditional problem for expressivism can be avoided. After considering two forms of inferentialism that lead to revenge versions of the problem, I conclude by recommending that we understand the semantics of moral disagreements pragmatically: the source of univocity does not come from moral or semantic facts waiting to be described, but instead from the needs that ethical and semantic discourses answer – a solution to the problems of what we are to do and how we are to talk about it. (shrink)

A short paper discussing and critiquing common claims that "truth is relative.".

Written in 1949, La Scoperta di Marx was first published in 1958 in Pier Paolo Pasolini, L'usignolo della Chiesa Cattolica (Editore Longanesi). It is published here, along the first English translation of the poem, with the permission of Garzanti Libri.

Quantifier variance is a well-known view in contemporary metaontology, but it remains very widely misunderstood by critics. Here we briefly and clearly explain the metasemantics of quantifier variance and distinguish between modest and strong forms of variance (Section I), explain some key applications (Section II), clear up some misunderstandings and address objections (Section III), and point the way toward future directions of quantifier-variance-related research (Section IV).

Bibliography of South African literary works and literary criticism published in 2019.

Western societies are experiencing a crisis of trust: we no longer enjoy high levels of confidence in social institutions and are increasingly skeptical of those holding positions of authority. The crisis of trust, however, seems paradoxical: at the same time we report greater feelings of mistrust or an erosion of trust in institutions and technologies we increasingly entrust our wellbeing and security to these very same technologies and institutions. Analyzing trust not only will help resolve the paradox but suggests that (...) the crisis entails normative expectations linked to collective identity, and as such, trust can be understood as a public virtue. (shrink)

The theoretical underpinnings and practical worth of content-based, intentional, or "folk" psychology have been challenged by three distinct groups of philosophical critics in the past 15 years or so. The first group, comprised by Hilary Putnam, Tyler Burge, and other advocates of "wide" or "externalist" theories of meaning, claims that traditional psychologists have been mistaken in assuming that our beliefs, desires, and other content-laden states supervene on or inhere in our individual minds or brains. The other two groups are both (...) "eliminative materialists," who charge that the intentional approach is inadequate and that it can or will be replaced by a completely non-interpretive discipline: either neuropsychology, in the view of Patricia and Paul Churchland, or a strictly syntactic computational psychology, according to Stephen Stich. ;This dissertation defends "notional world" or narrow intentional psychology against these charges, primarily on the strength of its practical merits, in contrast to the limitations and adverse effects of the proposed alternatives. Psychology is at least partly an applied science with a mandate to help understand and treat concrete psychological problems such as Post Traumatic Stress Disorder and depression, I argue, so any theorist who proposes to reconfigure or phase out existing approaches must be prepared to take over these duties with at least equal facility. However, whereas various "narrow" schools of psychotherapy such as Cognitive Therapy are fairly successful in this regard and show every indication of continuing to be needed for the foreseeable future, the Syntactic Theory seems to show very poor promise of being able to help relieve the distress of people with psychological disturbances, while a purely neurobiological approach is inappropriate in many cases, and tends to cause a variety of untoward and dangerous side-effects. As for the "wide" theorists with their emphasis upon the social and environmental contributions to meaning: they must acknowledge that a good deal of content is in the head; and, more importantly, by focusing on the role of the "experts" in a society's language-game, they miss the whole point of a psychological attribution, which is to understand an individual's reasons--however idiosyncratic--for acting as he or she does. (shrink)

It has recently been argued that reproductive genetic manipulation technologies like mitochondrial replacement and germline CRISPR modifications cannot be said to save anyone’s life because, counterfactually, no one would suffer more or die sooner absent the intervention. The present article argues that, on the contrary, reproductive genetic manipulations may be life-saving (and, from this, have therapeutic value) under an appropriate population health perspective. As such, popular reports of reproductive genetic manipulations potentially saving lives or preventing disease are not necessarily mistaken, (...) though such terminology still requires further empirical validation. (shrink)

Fichte assigns ‘intellectual intuition’ a new meaning after Kant. But in 1799, his doctrine of intellectual intuition is publicly deemed indefensible by Kant and nihilistic by Jacobi. I propose to defend Fichte’s doctrine against these charges, leaving aside whether it captures what he calls the ‘spirit’ of transcendental idealism. I do so by articulating three problems that motivate Fichte’s redirection of intellectual intuition from being to acting: (1) the regress problem, which states that reflecting on empirical facts of consciousness leads (...) only to further facts and so cannot yield a first principle; (2) the rhapsody problem, which states that the categories form a haphazard set and so lack necessity unless they derive from a first principle; and (3) the nihilism problem, which states that a first principle cannot lie outside our cognition of it, lest it be the cause of our cognition and, being first, the cause of all our actions, reducing us to machines. Crucially, Fichte’s three motivating problems are in fact aspects of a single problem. Leaving any aspect unsolved spoils putative solutions to the other two. Consequently, Fichte requires a single unified solution to all three, which his doctrine of intellectual intuition provides. (shrink)

Background: All research has room for improvement, but authors do not always clearly acknowledge the limitations of their work. In this brief report, we sought to identify the prevalence of limitations statements in the medRxiv COVID-19 SARS-CoV-2 dataset. Methods: We combined automated methods with manual review to analyse manuscripts for the presence, or absence, either of a defined limitations section in the text, or as part of the general discussion. Results: We identified a structured limitations statement in 28% of the (...) manuscripts, and overall 52% contained at least one mention of a study limitation. Over one-third of manuscripts contained none of the terms that might typically be associated with reporting of limitations. Overall our method performed with precision of 0.97 and recall of 0.91. Conclusion: The presence or absence of limitations statements can be identified with reasonable confidence using automated tools. We suggest that it might be beneficial to require a defined, structured statement about study limitations, either as part of the submission process, or clearly delineated within the manuscript. (shrink)

The current prevailing view is that participation in biomedical research is above and beyond the call of duty. While some commentators have offered reasons against this, we propose a novel public goods argument for an obligation to participate in biomedical research. Biomedical knowledge is a public good, available to any individual even if that individual does not contribute to it. Participation in research is a critical way to support an important public good. Consequently, all have a duty to participate. The (...) current social norm is that individuals participate only if they have a good reason to do so. The public goods argument implies that individuals should participate unless they have a good reason not to. Such a shift would be of great aid to the progress of biomedical research, eventually making society significantly healthier and longer lived. (shrink)

The COVID-19 pandemic revealed numerous weaknesses in pandemic preparedness and response, including underfunding, inadequate surveillance, and inequitable distribution of countermeasures. To overcome these weaknesses for future pandemics, WHO released a zero draft of a pandemic treaty in February, 2023, and subsequently a revised bureau's text in May, 2023. COVID-19 made clear that pandemic prevention, preparedness, and response reflect choices and value judgements. These decisions are therefore not a purely scientific or technical exercise, but are fundamentally grounded in ethics. The latest (...) treaty draft reflects these ethical considerations by including a section entitled Guiding Principles and Approaches. Most of these principles are ethical—they establish core values that undergird the treaty. Unfortunately, the treaty draft's set of principles are numerous, overlapping, and show inadequate coherence and consistency. We propose two improvements to this section of the draft pandemic treaty. First, key guiding ethical principles should be clearer and more precise than they currently are. Second, the link between ethical principles and policy implementation should be clearly established and define boundaries on acceptable interpretation, ensuring that signatories abide by these principles. (shrink)

Throughout his career, Schelling assigns knowledge of the absolute first principle of philosophy to intellectual intuition. Schelling's doctrine of intellectual intuition raises two important questions for interpreters. First, given that his doctrine undergoes several changes before and after his identity philosophy, to what extent can he be said to “hold onto” the same “sense” of it by the 1830s, as he claims? Second, given that his doctrine of intellectual intuition restricts absolute idealism to what he calls a “science of reason”, (...) which he says cannot prove the absolute’s existence, what other doctrine does he require in order to prove this? I will answer these questions by tracing the shifts in Schelling’s doctrine of intellectual intuition from the 1790s to the 1830s and drawing out its evolving methodological role within his science of intelligibility. (shrink)

In the Vocation of Man, Fichte makes the striking claim that life is eternal, rational, our true being, and the final cause of nature in general and of death in particular. How can we make sense of this claim? I argue that the public lectures that compose the Vocation are a popular expression of Fichte’s pre-existing commitment to what I call immortalism, the view that life is the unconditioned condition of intelligibility. Casting the I as an absolutely self-active or living (...) power enables his philosophical account of both the intelligibility of objects and of what it means to die. This explains his characterization of the Wissenschaftslehre as a system in which ‘all is act, movement, and life’. In Sect. 1, I explain the context of Jacobi’s use of ‘caput mortuum’ as a term for the thing in itself. In Sects. 2 and 3, I reconstruct two immortalist arguments from Fichte’s Jena period. The first is that the I’s self-activity rules out the existence of the thing in itself and thereby vanquishes ‘death’s head’. The second is that, insofar as the I charges us with the moral perfection of nature, it is the final cause of our entire life, including its end. This is to say that the I puts our every moment into question, even our last. In Sect. 4, I use these immortalist arguments to interpret the striking claim from the Vocation. (shrink)

Integrity not only is a central concept within virtue ethics and a subject of considerable debate among philosophers regarding its nature and relation to other virtues, but also is important for our understanding of what it means to possess a constituted and coherent self. Much of the literature on integrity is focused on relationships among moral principles and virtues, while less attention is paid to any relationship that integrity might have to practical agency or personal identity. In maintaining this focus, (...) philosophers fail to appreciate the special relation integrity has to the constitution of a coherent self. Central to integrity are considerations about self-identity and agency because it is through ongoing and deliberate activities that reflect the type of person with which she wishes to identify that a person constitutes self-identity and agency in a coherent manner. Once the relationship between integrity and a coherent self is properly understood, it becomes clear that the moral content of integrity is relatively thin and that the approbation usually associated with a person of integrity stems not from judgments about convictions or principles, but from the relationship between actions and commitments. (shrink)

Mitochondrial replacement therapy requires oocytes of women whose mitochondrial DNA will be transmitted to resultant children. These techniques are scientifically, ethically and socially controversial; it is likely that some women who donate their oocytes for general in vitro fertilisation usage would nevertheless oppose their genetic material being used in MRT. The possibility of oocytes being used in MRT is therefore relevant to oocyte donation and should be included in the consent process when applicable. In present circumstances, specific consent should be (...) obtained. However, once MRT becomes more routine, such consent could be incorporated into the general consent process for oocyte donation. The reported lack of proper consent for MRT from the oocyte donor in the first baby born via the technique is an ethical failing and should be corrected in any future practice of MRT. (shrink)

Skeptical puzzles and arguments often employ knowledge-closure principles . Epistemologists widely believe that an adequate reply to the skeptic should explain why her reasoning is appealing albeit misleading; but it’s unclear what would explain the appeal of the skeptic’s closure principle, if not for its truth. In this paper, I aim to challenge the widespread commitment to knowledge-closure. But I proceed by first examining a new puzzle about failing to know—what I call the New Ignorance Puzzle . This puzzle resembles (...) to the Old Ignorance Puzzle , although it does not involve a closure principle. It instead centers on the standard view of ignorance, a highly intuitive principle stating that ignorance is merely a failure to know. In Sects. 2 and 3, I argue that the best way to solve the New Ignorance Puzzle is to reject the standard view of ignorance and to explain away its appeal via conversational implicature. I then use this solution to the New Ignorance Puzzle as a way of explaining why knowledge-closure principles would seem true, and why abominable conjunctions would seem abominable, even if such principles were false . The upshot is a new way of explaining why the skeptic’s reasoning is appealing albeit misleading. (shrink)

In Mind and World, John McDowell argues against the view that perceptual representation is non-conceptual. The central worry is that this view cannot offer any reasonable account of how perception bears rationally upon belief. I argue that this worry, though sensible, can be met, if we are clear that perceptual representation is, though non-conceptual, still in some sense 'assertoric': Perception, like belief, represents things as being thus and so.

Kant’s critique/doctrine distinction tracks the difference between a canon for the understanding’s proper use and an organon for its dialectical misuse. The latter reflects the dogmatic use of reason to attain a doctrine of knowledge with no antecedent critique. In the 1790s, Fichte collapses Kant’s distinction and redefines dogmatism. He argues that deriving a canon is essentially dialectical and thus yields an organon: critical idealism is properly a doctrine of science or Wissenschaftslehre. Criticism is furthermore said to refute dogmatism, by (...) which Fichte means Spinozism. Schelling repudiates Fichte’s position in his Philosophical Letters by reviving Kant’s distinction. First, ‘critique’ for Schelling names a canon that is valid for all systems—including Spinozism—and thus favours none—not even the Wissenschaftslehre. Second, Schelling coins ‘dogmaticism’ to refer to what Kant calls ‘dogmatism’: reason’s uncritical claim to doctrine. Hence, he says all systems—even Fichte’s—are susceptible to the ‘enthusiasm’ of mistaking themselves for doctrines or ‘objects of knowledge’, instead of subjectively valid ‘objects of freedom’. I reconstruct Schelling’s argument for reviving Kant’s distinction, while noting two consequences for German idealism. First, if criticism favours no system, a system’s origin cannot be an act of knowledge, e.g., intellectual intuition, but only an act of endorsement. Second, if dogmaticism entails enthusiasm, a system’s goal cannot be absolute knowledge, but only infinite striving. Hence, by retrieving Schelling’s notion of dogmaticism, we can both gain a better understanding of the Letters and register the impact of a core Kantian distinction on the German idealist project. (shrink)

The concept of facticity denotes conditions of experience whose necessity is not logical yet whose contingency is not empirical. Although often associated with Heidegger, Fichte coins ‘facticity’ in his Berlin period to refer to the conclusion of Kant’s metaphysical deduction of the categories, which he argues leaves it a contingent matter that we have the conditions of experience that we do. Such rhapsodic or factical conditions, he argues, must follow necessarily, independent of empirical givenness, from the I through a process (...) of ‘genesis.’ I reconstruct Fichte’s argument by tracing the origin of his neologism, presenting his Jena critique of Kant’s rhapsodic appeal to the forms of judgment, and illustrating the Jena period’s continuity with the Berlin period’s genetic method, while noting a methodological shift whereby Fichte directs his critique against his own doctrine of intellectual intuition in order to eliminate its ‘factical terms.’. (shrink)

As opposed to a ‘one size fits all’ approach, precision medicine uses relevant biological, medical, behavioural and environmental information about a person to further personalize their healthcare. This could mean better prediction of someone’s disease risk and more effective diagnosis and treatment if they have a condition. Big data allows for far more precision and tailoring than was ever before possible by linking together diverse datasets to reveal hitherto-unknown correlations and causal pathways. But it also raises ethical issues relating to (...) the balancing of interests, viability of anonymization, familial and group implications, as well as genetic discrimination. This article analyses these issues in light of the values of public benefit, justice, harm minimization, transparency, engagement and reflexivity and applies the deliberative balancing approach found in theEthical Framework for Big Data in Health and Research to a case study on clinical genomic data sharing. Please refer to that article for an explanation of how this framework is to be used, including a full explanation of the key values involved and the balancing approach used in the case study at the end. Our discussion is meant to be of use to those involved in the practice as well as governance and oversight of precision medicine to address ethical concerns that arise in a coherent and systematic manner. (shrink)

This chapter intervenes in recent debates in Kant scholarship about the possibility of a general logical alien. Such an alien is a thinker whose laws of thinking violate ours. She is third-personal as she is radically unlike us. Proponents of the constitutive reading of Kant’s conception of general logic accordingly suggest that Kant rules out the possibility of such an alien as unthinkable. I add to this an often-overlooked element in Kant’s thinking: there is reason to think that he grants—and (...) in fact presupposes—the possibility of a transcendental logical alien. Such an alien is a knower whose laws of experience purport to violate ours. She is first-personal as she is radically like us. In other words, she is us, insofar as we are alienated from ourselves and our experience. I go on to draw an analogy between her, a dogmatist, and another transcendental alien, an evil agent. Just as a dogmatist is alienated from her (our) experiential laws, an evil agent is alienated from her (our) moral law. These forms of theoretical and practical self-conceit require self-knowledge in the form of a critique of speculative or practical reason. In bringing this point out, I aim to shift from the question of whether logical laws constitute our thinking to the question of whether grasping our experiential and moral laws as our laws constitutes our reason. (shrink)

This paper offers a short extension of the dialogue between Anselm and the Fool that is contained in "The Ontological Argument Simplified" by Gary Matthews and Lynne Rudder Baker. My extension of the dialogue ends with the Fool proclaiming that "what looks like an argument of elegant simplicity turns out to be no argument at all".

In the Freedom essay, Schelling charges that (1) idealism fails to grasp human freedom’s distinctiveness and that (2) this failure undermines idealism's attempt to refute pantheism, as exemplified by Spinoza. This raises two questions, which I will answer in turn: what, for Schelling, is distinctive of human freedom; and how does the idealists’ failure to grasp it render them unable to refute pantheism? To answer these questions, I will reconstruct Schelling’s argument that freedom has the distinctness of being the unconditioned (...) condition of the world’s intelligibility. My reconstruction will illustrate how Schelling’s notion of freedom as primal will grounds the alleged primacy of practical reason as Kant and Fichte conceive it. I will then consider three objections to Schelling’s argument. Throughout, I will develop the Schellingian idea that freedom is enacted in an unprethinkable decision that cannot be anticipated by any law or principle. (shrink)

Fichte argues that the conclusion of Kant’s transcendental deduction of the categories is correct yet lacks a crucial premise, given Kant’s admission that the metaphysical deduction locates an arbitrary origin for the categories. Fichte provides the missing premise by employing a new method: a genetic deduction of the categories from a first principle. Since Fichte claims to articulate the same view as Kant in a different, it is crucial to grasp genetic deduction in relation to the sorts of deduction that (...) Kant offers. I propose to interpret genetic deduction as the simultaneous fulfillment of two tasks: answering the question quid facti by deriving the categories from the I and answering the question quid juris by establishing our entitlement to the categories as conditions of experience. While the second task represents Fichte’s agreement with Kant’s transcendental deduction, the first reflects his correction of Kant’s metaphysical deduction. (shrink)

This paper examines two puzzles of indeterminacy. The first puzzle concerns the hypothesis that there is a unified phenomenon of indeterminacy. How are we to reconcile this with the apparent diversity of reactions that indeterminacy prompts? The second puzzle focuses narrowly on borderline cases of vague predicates. How are we to account for the lack of theoretical consensus about what the proper reaction to borderline cases is? I suggest (building on work by Maudlin) that the characteristic feature of indeterminacy is (...) alethic normative silence, and use this to explain both plurality and lack of consensus. (shrink)

Aristotle argued that you need some wealth to live well. The Stoics argued that you could live well with or without wealth. But the Cynics argued that wealth is a hinderance. For the Cynics, a good life consists in self-sufficiency, or being able to rule and help yourself. You accomplish this by living simply and naturally, and by subjecting yourself to rigorous philosophical exercises. Cynics confronted people to get them to abandon extraneous possessions and positions of power to live better. (...) And while the Cynics were experts in living in this way, their ascetic lifestyles made their message curious to some audiences. This paper reflects on Cynic ascetic practices and the ways others perceived them. (shrink)

Some have objected to human enhancement on the grounds that it violates the autonomy of the enhanced. These objections, however, overlook the interesting possibility that autonomy itself could be enhanced. How, exactly, to enhance autonomy is a difficult problem due to the numerous and diverse accounts of autonomy in the literature. Existing accounts of autonomy enhancement rely on narrow and controversial conceptions of autonomy. However, we identify one feature of autonomy common to many mainstream accounts: reasoning ability. Autonomy can then (...) be enhanced by improving people’s reasoning ability, in particular through cognitive enhancement; given how valuable autonomy is usually taken to be, this gives us extra reason to pursue such cognitive enhancements. Moreover, autonomy-based objections will be especially weak against such enhancements. As we will argue, those who are worried that enhancements will inhibit people’s autonomy should actually embrace those enhancements that will improve autonomy. (shrink)

Biological evolution is a complex blend of ever changing structural stability, variability and emergence of new phe- notypes, niches, ecosystems. We wish to argue that the evo- lution of life marks the end of a physics world view of law entailed dynamics. Our considerations depend upon dis- cussing the variability of the very ”contexts of life”: the in- teractions between organisms, biological niches and ecosys- tems. These are ever changing, intrinsically indeterminate and even unprestatable: we do not know ahead of (...) time the ”niches” which constitute the boundary conditions on selec- tion. More generally, by the mathematical unprestatability of the ”phase space”, no laws of mo- tion can be formulated for evolution. We call this radical emergence, from life to life. The purpose of this paper is the integration of variation and diversity in a sound concep- tual frame and situate unpredictability at a novel theoretical level, that of the very phase space. Our argument will be carried on in close comparisons with physics and the mathematical constructions of phase spaces in that discipline. The role of symmetries as invariant preserving transformations will allow us to under- stand the nature of physical phase spaces and to stress the differences required for a sound biological theoretizing. In this frame, we discuss the novel notion of ”enablement”. Life lives in a web of enablement and radical emergence. This will restrict causal analyses to differential cases. Mutations or other causal differ- ences will allow us to stress that ”non conservation princi- ples” are at the core of evolution, in contrast to physical dynamics, largely based on conservation principles as sym- metries. Critical transitions, the main locus of symmetry changes in physics, will be discussed, and lead to ”extended criticality” as a conceptual frame for a better understanding of the living state of matter. (shrink)

Organisms that share the capability of storing information about experiences in the past have an actively generated background resource on which they can compare and evaluate more recent experiences in order to quickly or even better react than in previous situations. This is an essential competence for all reaction and adaptation purposes of living organisms. Such memory/learning skills can be found from akaryotes up to unicellular eukaryotes, fungi, animals and plants, although until recently, it had been mentioned only as a (...) capability of higher animals. With the rise of epigenetics, the context-dependent marking of experiences at both the phenotype and the genotype level is an essential perspective to understand memory and learning in all organisms. Both memory and learning depend on a variety of successful communication processes within the whole organism. (shrink)

Volume 20, Issue 2, February 2020, Page 20-22.

"It is the purpose of this article to attempt to re-examine the account of Thrasymachus' doctrine in Plato's Republic, and to show how it can form a self-consistent whole. [...] In this paper it is maintained that Thrasymachus is holding a form of [natural right]." Note: Volume 40 = new series 9.

While the idea that philosophy requires self-transformation is historically pervasive, it exerts considerable influence on the post-Kantians who first aim to systematize Kant’s idealism by grounding it on a first principle. In the 1790s, Fichte and Schelling offer competing accounts of the self-transformation that they regard as essential to positing a first principle. Their accounts raise two central questions. First, what makes this kind of self-transformation possible? Second, are there different possible expressions of philosophical self-transformation? In what follows, I will (...) articulate the Fichtean and Schellingian answers to these central questions. For Fichte, the one who summons me to posit a first principle makes possible my philosophical self-transformation, although the latter has an exclusively idealist expression in that I can only genuinely posit the I as first principle, which is to say that philosophical self-transformation depends on mutual recognition and vindicates precisely one philosophical system (Section 1). For Schelling, a brute act of will makes possible my philosophical self-transformation, although the latter has either an idealist or a realist expression in that I can genuinely posit either the I or the not-I as first principle, which is to say that philosophical self-transformation does not depend on mutual recognition and vindicates one of two possible philosophical systems (Section 2). Thus, whereas Fichtean self-transformation is recognitive and non-pluralistic, Schellingian self-transformation is pluralistic and non-recognitive. I conclude with a discussion of how Jacobi poses a challenge to Fichte’s and Schelling’s answers to the two central questions (Section 3). (shrink)